Copd Ventilation Problem

Two homelands. Two cultures. A collective thinking and common sense virtues of coffee

Reflections of a Colombian immigrant in Argentina

By César Augusto Hernández Salazar Student mastery
" landscape, environment and city " on
UNLP

La Plata, Argentina. Foreign nationality inevitably brings about who experience a critical attitude inevitable, since the outsider is constantly making comparisons of what you see and live in the country that receives them in his tenure with the customs of the land from which it comes. The author of this article, Colombian nationality, with a strong cultural influence paisa (1) who has more than twelve months living in Argentine territory, shared some of his thoughts and impressions of the region La Plata River and reminiscent of landscapes (2) to which it belongs.

author photo: The Rock and El Penol de Entre Rios, Antioquia, 2005.

Definitely I agree with those who claim that even when not taken away from the place where children, school, friends, family, early youth was part of all that it means is difficult to disentangle the features that you identify as belonging to a particular culture, with all that that entails, enorgullecerte of singular nobility but also recognize those spots which unfortunately is what stands out. But then you conclude that in spite of many obvious differences may also recognize cultural patterns that make us equal, since no escaping the human condition.

At another country, it takes much the others say: "this guy is not here," , you read it in their eyes, and it is not necessary to elapse long time to feel that you're somewhere else, somewhere else. The accents of the language as it is referred tunes here, the complexion of your skin, curly hair and how I express myself definitely reveal that my background is different from strangers that Argentines are accustomed to seeing on the bus (bus), in the bar (coffee shop) or walking down the sidewalk (the sidewalk). "You American center? Does Venezuela or Panama?, that they will target some of my background dare to throw up some potential countries to identify my nationality. No, I'm from Colombia ... I say some sometimes after hearing my response continues with a long silence, which the gesture interpreted in different ways, or in the vast majority of occasions hardly hear the name of my country say: ahh ... how nice !!!... What are you doing here in this cold? ...

Colombian in Argentina are becoming more, not only demonstrate that the nationals of that country but also that it took months here a prolonged stay. You see them for various reasons, tourism and university or postgraduate studies are the more I appreciated when I crossed and I see one reason for their presence. So now it is becoming easier to identify us among the large number of mostly Latino immigrants in Bolivia, Peru and Paraguay, all with the same language but noticed differences in how to treat it and use it to communicate with others.

Argentina

When you hear yourself on the use of language and immigrants who speak Castilian, from more to more educated layman appreciates the outstanding treatment that the Colombian language makes over twenty countries have as their official language.

photo author: Young Colombian company of a Brazilian and two Argentine Italy Park of the city of La Plata, 2007.

The paradox of this is that if only we made a comparison between Colombians and Argentines, without regard to the marked regional differences in each country, Argentina is definitely a country lawyer, ie I dare say this knowing that I make no finding that the average Argentine much more than read the Colombian, even aseveraría are the southern most have been immersed in novels such as One Hundred Years of Solitude Garcia Marquez's Nobel that mention his countrymen more as we celebrate the star's championship football team to which he is devoted.

But just as the Argentines in general are good readers, although many are skeptical that the trend will continue, due in great part to historical and cultural reasons, because for this vast country could be governed and administered by progressive generations (3) appealed to nineteenth-century literature as a manager in the construction of national identity, amazing work thus although no cause of this essay to go into it, the hitherto Argentina identity construction was accomplished in less than a century on the basis that there were some hordes of immigrants from the old continent, not just Italians as simplistically infer from the outside, but from other northern countries and even Eastern European (4) Those who had the momentum to build a new nation attending the slogan govern is to populate and thus opened the doors to immigration by their varied backgrounds and thus different beliefs and languages, with public school and compulsory education in Castilian settlers generations led to frequent and reading transmitida a las generaciones posteriores.

En Colombia que el logro de la escuela pública es muy posterior a la de Argentina, y que aún registra un índice menor de desarrollo humano según PNUD 2004 que la patria con la que establezco el parangón, paradójicamente el colombiano se presenta en la región como una persona culta, pues muy a pesar de su condición social, incluso en las que carecen de educación básica, se aprecia en muchos un trato adecuado del idioma. Muchos académicos y entendidos en el tema que atribuyen esta particularidad a la relación directa que tuvo la región denominada por la corona española en el siglo XVI como Nueva Granada, para ese entonces nueva división administrativa separándose del virreinato de Lima. Analistas dicen que a pesar de la fragilidad que manifestaba este virreinato existía una relación cultural muy directa con las regiones de España donde mejor se hablaba castellano, pues de allí provenían los administradores encomendados por la corona que como en el caso de la República Argentina posterior a estos hechos se sirvieron de la instrucción obligatoria en el idioma con el mismo fin práctico, gobernar y controlar.

Aunado a la mayor precisión del colombiano al castellano viene what that stand out as an accent, a gentle tune, some say slow, with a rate that looks more like a song. But I also want to emphasize that in my capacity as foreign as I miss most about my city, my neighborhood and other places where I spent my earlier life, is respectful and cordial established with the neighbor with the doorman of the building where she worked with the driver of the taxi, bus or collective, although it was not generally in my experience I say that exceptions are more aggressive and disrespectful treatment that happens daily in the most common places where urban life happens Colombia.

not want to give the idea that Argentina offers a bad deal, because as an immigrant policy best condition I can not ask, but fails to amaze me repeatedly as the most common daily activities, like go to a kiosk (store) in a bar (coffee shop in Colombia), in a butcher shop or take a taxi, the treatment is usually terse and often comes to be unfriendly. Exceptions exist, but I notice that many Argentines, confined to the Greater Buenos Aires and La Plata, interpret a gesture of good attention manifest servitude remains a country that for decades has fought for the rights of workers, which largely held, but I regret that such a tradition confuse this as being unworthy among people.

Photo by author. Argentineans drinking mate in the Plaza Italia.
Ciudad de La Plata. 2007

hear is customary in cities like Medellín, Bogotá the capital itself, the warm Cali, among other Colombian cities to hear expressions like: "To order" "What I can I serve?" "Sígase no more", "It was with pleasure" and many others Moreover, as a gesture of friendliness and service that we have held daily and not interpret it as a humiliation. This seems ridiculous, irrelevant to mention, but it's just that everyday dealings in the street, the stranger, one of the strangest aspects of the culture that formed me as a person.

AQUIPero as cultures in many different aspects, Colombian and Argentina, as most similar is their greatest contradictions, because if River Plate Buenos Aires and the first impression given by the image of people sullen and laconic, it vanishes completely when the "ice-breaking social-cultural, you are called to be part of the ritual of mate (5) or holding a barbecue (6) .


When you are part of two great traditions, the truth Argentines make you feel like a

more between them, and more bitter than the herb is known to take a metal nozzle sucking happened in the cases under six different mouths who understand the value of ritual and meaning of inclusion that this entails, we separate any preference to taste and scrupulous stipulations, and unite ourselves to the perhaps more weighty gesture of collective action to share more than a drink that can be registered in Latin America. And if it is a roast, in addition to the indescribable qualities of taste and texture of beef from the pampas of Argentina, accompanied by good wine mendozino and entertaining and fun talk, sometimes extended you felt the distance becomes more palpable sense of being at home.

For my country, Colombia is also an incredibly significant contradiction, because if at first proved to be correct to speak, kind of treatment, but also something we do not try to is the spontaneous joy and great sense of humor, you can not understand why we do not use those strengths to try to bridge differences that polarize and keep insisting on an internal conflict that threatens to be imperdurable.

The distance you take in your home, the girl who would be the block, neighborhood, your city, and large, the entire Colombia, as in my case definitely feel more in Colombia is impossible to identify with her, I am proud to recognize their values , but also prompts me to wonder about the reasons for their problems, therefore, take part and take care, responsible for its past and present. My current status in a foreign country so different from mine as I can only thank Argentina, in addition to its opening as an immigrant, the opportunity to have this distance to recognize the difference as part of another culture invaluable in one direction and contradictory other side and take a national position more critical, but despite the difference, giving me the opportunity to be part of their history, without which these ideas could never have taken place or time. Thanks Colombia .... Thank Argentina.

Bibliography.

• ROMERO, José Luis. Brief History of Argentina. Editorial Fondo de Cultura Economica 1996.

• SARMIENTO, Dominic. Facundo. Grupo Editor Altamira

Recommended links

• Educar.org: History mate.
• tourist Argentina: Asado rural.
• Saber.ula.ve: historical processes.
  

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Notes

[1] Paisa is a cultural type nickname which refers to people coming from the central Andean region of Colombia, which largely in the Departments of Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda and Quindio most surrounding areas of Valle del Cauca and Tolima. It is said that in the process of colonization of these territories, the first settlers in this land called paisas people who shared the same landscape, often mountainous.

[2] understand the concept of landscape that not only alludes to the physical and geographical features, but integrated into it, the cultural groups that have built a network of customs and links.

[3] enough to mention the work considered foundational literature Argentina: Facundo by Domingo F. Sarmiento who will become president of the republic in the late nineteenth century and who succeeded in this book deal after literary events in the first half of this century with a strong ideological influence.

[4] addition to a strong Italian immigration after she saw the creation of Scottish colonies in 1853 and then intensified favorable policies in this regard after 1880 in which people arrived from Germany, Spain, Slovenia, Poland, among others.

[5] This typical habit of the countries of the Río de la Plata. This infusion was used originally by the Guarani Indians, who used the yerba mate. The Jesuits, who settled in the area now occupied by the province of Misiones, improved cultivation, so the best are located there yerbatales.Actualmente the grass (chopped leaf yerba mate) can be purchased in packs of 1 / 2 and 1 kilo, and in the production region, divided into bags. See "History mate" by Educar.org.

[6] The famous roast is cooking in different parts of the cow on the coals, is spread throughout the country and is a typical meal in Argentina.
usually begins with a sausage and a sausage before it hits the meat. It may also be accompanied with kidneys, sweetbreads, liver and chinchulines, which make up the guts of cattle. It is also often include chicken and pork occasionally. Cf Asado Argentina's rural Turística.com.

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On the roads in the coffee

By Al Rodas

photo "Catedral de Manizales" Octavio Andrés González Estrada

Inglés

say that pastors sent as penance for his parishioners to plant coffee bushes. Is for the many sins confessed, either by the fertility of the Colombian mountains, it is certain that the coffee abounded to such an extent that the nation soon became one of the first international production coffee.

During the second half of the nineteenth century Colombia was not a nation maker. The leadership I had his twin sister, Venezuela, while Colombian products were cocoa and mining. By the late nineteenth century coffee became important while in Venezuela declined to enter fully into their oil boom. One of the historical elements that would open the doors to the outside coffee would be the "colonization of Antioquia" or in a more modern "colonization paisa. At present the country's coffee first zone and possibly the first area Colombia's economic output coincides with the geographical area of \u200b\u200bthe "settlement countries", which is known as the coffee.

Colonization paisa

The Nevado del Ruiz, chief of the Colombian Andes, guarded by the city of Manizales. Photo Wikimedia Commons.

In Republican-building processes of nineteenth-century Colombia, the "colonization of Antioch" has a fundamental place. She would be the main axis that would move into an era of industrialization in Colombia to the twentieth century and would be at a strategic point of national geography, between the fullness of the three Andean ranges, the two largest rivers in the country, at the point of connection between the north Atlantic, western Pacific, the southwestern and western sugar dominated by the nation's capital. Paradoxically, the place went unnoticed during the colonial and public lands were inhabited by mountain farmers without much impact on colonial life. Even practices such as slavery was abolished just as scarce naturally by the settlers who lived almost forgotten among the steep valleys la Montaña Antioqueña. Los centros españoles de mayor importancia eran aquellos localizados a la vera de los ríos Cauca y Magdalena y cuyo principal renglón económico era la explotación del oro. Los nombres de ciudades como Zaragoza, Segovia, Remedios, Yolombó, Cáceres, Santa Fé de Antioquia y otros entre las confluencias de los dos grandes ríos eran los principales centros del silencioso habitar antioqueño (o paisa como se dice hoy), mientras pueblos localizados en las montañas como Medellín, Rionegro, Marinilla, Sonsón y muchos otros no eran más que sitios de paso con una rígida vida católica, exclusivamente blancos y con un fuerte sentido por la unión familiar. Aún and of those people be leaving a very important figure in the Wars of Independence against Spain as the young General José María Córdoba, a warrior almost teenager it is for the Simon Bolivar and Antioquia who stopped the advance of the royalist troops to recapture the Nechí site or the Atanasio Girardot famous hero who was one of the most distinguished and seasoned parents of Colombian and Venezuelan homeland.

The search for better land for farming means that during the first decades of Independence, Antioquia families migrate south and enter those territories "vacant" who were under the influence of Cali, Popayan and Ibague, those areas surrounding the Nevado del Ruiz. While speaking of "colonization", the adventure has little to do with the process of English colonization was a very peaceful. Although it is said they were "uncultivated lands", this statement is also treated with care, because in those territories inhabited by indigenous communities in their own right who survived the English colonization and which are integrated into this "colonization paisa. Among the foundations that would be strictly Antioquia development axis has Manizales, founded in 1841, Armenia, founded in 1889 and Pereira, founded in 1863. With them the Antioquia extended into what is now the coffee and was separated from the governorship of Popayán, a situation that no change would be peaceful with the rising influence of Cali.

The Coffee

... and this region is so great they came from such delights as the Colombian coffee served on this blog thanks the lens always artistic Hector Meza.

The new families who settled in these territories, soon began a new story in the national production system especially coffee cultivation. A test of the success of the coffee boom and the late nineteenth century is that the War of a Thousand Days respected throughout Antioquia, while a regional policy of a certain industrial liberalism was imposed by the conservative elites of Medellin with Pedro Justo Berrio to head. The impenetrable mountain opened the nation with the construction of the tunnel Bankruptcy Santiago at the point of allowing the passage of Antioquia Railroad unforgettable. The advent of aviation would put the region in the Strait of Magellan country's emerging economy and there would be a curious change that exists today: the Antioquia towns that were in the major cities like Cologne Remedios, Zaragoza, Santa Fe de Antioquia, etc, fall into a final decline to give way to the hegemony of Medellín mountain villages as the people around you more new foundations as Manizales and Pereira.

The famous viaduct "César Gaviria Trujillo" between Dosquebradas and Pereira. Photo Orzalaga .

The new administrative division of Colombia departmentalization fragment enacted after 1886 would be born in Antioch and her four new departments: in the first phase the same Antioquia including coastal part (Urabá) and the banks of the Atrato chocuano and the department of Caldas Manizales created in 1904 as capital and a second phase to fragment into three Caldas Caldas, Risarlada with Pereira as capital and capital Quindío and Armenia as the middle of the twentieth century. But the influence of the subculture or Antioquia paisa was framed within the boundaries of these four departments: paisas peoples can now be found west of the department of Tolima and northern Valle del Cauca (Carthage, Union, Tulua, Versailles, etc.). For example, the lost city of Armero was a paisa town in Tolima department.

Today Coffee is known as the areas where coffee is the first rung of the economy. This includes strictly to the departments of Caldas, Risaralda and Quindio, but also coffee areas surrounding departments such as the so-called South-east of Antioquia and coffee areas and countries of Tolima and Valle del Cauca.

Pereira: The Pearl of Otún

If we were to make a visionary perspective on intermediate cities in Colombia, Pereira would be the subject of much study. It is the heart of the "Golden Triangle of Colombia", ie, geographically the center of the confluence of the three main urban Andes in Bogota, Medellin and Cali. Birthplace of great personalities of national life as the president César Gaviria Trujillo, who was also secretary of the OAS, athletes, artists, politicians and others, Pereira offers spaces

The city, located 359 km west of Bogota is also a center of important national industries with an economy dependent on agriculture, food production, apparel and metalworking. The Matecaña AIRPORT connects the city with the main AIRPORT country and international connections.

Pereira has a total population of 428,389 according to the DANE census of 2005 and the entire infrastructure of a modern and developing city with convenient transportation system as the Megabus.

Malma Manizales

Manizales City (414,389 inhabitants according to the Dane Census 2005) is the capital of the Caldas department, was one of the earliest settlements in the so-called colonization paisas of Antioquia. The city is located at the gates of the Nevado del Ruiz, a major national altitudes and is also the Arenas volcano, responsible for the disappearance of Armero (Tolima). A 305 km west of Bogota, 180 miles south of Medellin, 300 miles north of Cali, Manizales has an altitude of 2,126 kilometers above sea level, the climate is cold and the distinction of being a city of big hills and magnificent Andean landscapes. The AIRPORT La Nubia communicates with other regions.

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Latin America and the Caribbean grew 5% in 2007 and 4.6% is projected for 2008

2006'2007 According to economic studies of the ECLAC . The main challenge is to continue increasing investment in ensure the sustainability of medium-term growth

The good performance of the global economy is working for the economies of Latin America and the Caribbean pass through a time of high growth. Thus, the region is expected to grow 5% this year and 4.6% in 2008, after growing by 5.6% in 2006.

So says the ECLAC in its report Economic Survey of Latin America and the Caribbean 2006-2007 , released today in Santiago de Chile by its Executive Secretary, José Luis Machinea . According to the document confirmed the forecasts until 2008, the region will end six years of consecutive growth, since 2003 - in which the per capita accumulate an increase of 20.6%, equivalent to an average rise of more than 3% annually.

According to ECLAC , it is expected that in 2007 South America as a whole will grow 5.7%, while Central America and Mexico at 3.6% would do so. For the Caribbean subregion is projected to grow 5.5%.

According to the report, in 2006 the growth phase through the region was characterized by the existence of parallel surpluses in current account balance of payments and public sector primary balance.

These surpluses have been boosted by the strong recovery in the terms of trade, equivalent to 3.4% of GDP, especially in the countries of South America. Improved terms of trade have contributed to increasing trade balance surplus and boost revenue.

Moreover, in 2006 the export volume of goods and services in the region grew by 7.3%. This dynamic was helped by the growth of U.S. economy in the case of Mexico and the persistent foreign demand for raw materials exported by countries de América Latina y el Caribe, a lo que se sumó el incremento de la actividad económica y de la demanda interna de la región, con lo cual se impulsó el comercio intra-regional de productos manufacturados. En tanto, el volumen importado de bienes y servicios creció un 14,2%.

Este panorama positivo en materia de actividad económica permitió además una mejora en el mercado del trabajo. No sólo disminuyó la tasa de desempleo regional, de un 9,1% en 2005 a un 8,6% en 2006, sino también mejoró la calidad de los puestos de trabajo.

En promedio, América Latina y el Caribe registró una tasa de inflación de 5% en 2006, luego scoring a 6.1% in 2005. Brazil experienced the largest drop in this index (from 5.7% to 3%).

Another positive aspect highlighted by the report is the reduction of vulnerability of the countries of the region, thanks to a significant reduction in external debt burden, both in relation to GDP (from 26% to 22%) as regional exports (from 101% to 84%), and increased its international reserve assets of around 57,000 million dollars.

However, not all countries have benefited from favorable external environment. Specifically, compared with the economies of America South, the nations of Central America and much of the Caribbean (except Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname) had a less positive terms of trade and current account and a slower growth of gross national disposable income and investment, as well as fiscal imbalances and increased external vulnerability.

Outlook for 2007

According to ECLAC , it is possible to maintain a cautious optimism for the near future, due to the evolution shown by the international economy and the relative strength of economies the region. However, it notes with concern the recent increase in volatility in international financial markets.

investment remains the main driver of demand, while private consumption will recover, but is expected to grow again in 2007 unless the national income, which implies a further increase in national savings. Another development is the decline in the unemployment rate, projected at 8.3% for 2007, similar to the beginning of the nineties. On the other hand, while average inflation was stable in the first months of 2007, is accelerating in many countries because of pressures from both the demand and from supply. The ECLAC notes that the investment rate is still low compared to the levels required for sustained high economic growth over the medium term. To support this expansion, the region also needs to develop fiscal policies cycles.

See also:

• table: Gross domestic product (millions of dollars at constant prices of 2000). Rates of change
• Presentation by the Executive Secretary of ECLAC, José Luis Machinea

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The company plans to go to Wall Street in August 2008 and did not rule out a second round in the Colombian market.

Following the success of the first round of placement of shares ended on Tuesday, Ecopetrol was eager to have more partners and a new step in its internationalization by recording the company in the New York Stock Exchange.

However, the desire to create more shareholders have to wait for at least six months as the company begins trading on the Exchange of Securities of Colombia.

The purpose of Wall Street to reach a goal that is set for August 2008. >> Continue reading.

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photo "Barrancabermeja Ecopetrol" by Vampire

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The business 'sang' a few days ago in Santiago de Chile: not less than 50,000 hectares of forests will be planted in Colombia.

The business 'sang' it few days in Santiago de Chile: not less than 50,000 hectares of forests will be planted in Colombia, financed with resources is attracting Forest Latin America Enterprise Fund (LAEF), a background with extensive experience and whose first business in the country was to exploration of oil wells 'medium' potential. >> Continue reading .

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Santa Marta between the sea and the mountains

By Al Rodas

Inglés

Santa Marta, the English-American City "Living" oldest mainland of the Americas, is located in the bay of the same name at the foot of the highest mountain in Colombia. With heights exceeding 5 thousand meters above sea level, the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is the highest point of the planet is so close to the ocean, just 40 miles.

photo "Sunset in Santa Marta" in vcardenas .

If not for the area ...

scales to the Lost City. Photo tables on .

an old song that says if not for the area, Santa Marta die. Maybe that corresponds to a time and distance, because today is one of the most attractive cities in the country and has more than its waves, which never leave their emerald green color. To begin, one of the most illustrious men in Latin America and whose power is universal, the Liberator Simon Bolivar died on its soil in 1830 and this is perhaps one of the greatest sources of pride of this city that rules the north of Colombia.

The city is located in a geographical area that combines the extremes: in the space of 40 kilometers you can go from 2 meters above sea level with temperatures averaging 30 degrees at 5,500 meters with glacial climates. The other curiosity is that in a country whose central axis are the three Andean ranges, the highest mountain in the country is not part of the Andean system, it is in the Atlantic Coast and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is an independent .

Samaria Economy

Playa El Rodadero - Ronald Newell .

The first sector of the economy is certainly Samaria tourism in a place that has much to offer visitors, both within the urban setting with a city that preserves historic sites of great importance for the country as the Quinta de San Pedro Alexandria where he died the Liberator Simón Bolívar, the charms of the sea with beaches and marine activities and mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada. Tourism has been the subject of much attention by local governments and the influx of domestic and foreign visitors has increased in recent years, reports the Chamber of Commerce of Santa Marta ensures that the number of visitors increased from 75 to 100% between 2004 and 2005.


"The power of men flying ", a work dedicated by María González Arhuako the people, the inhabitants of the Sierra Nevada.

The second line of the city's economy is trade in which it informed the agency that this was the 97.11 % of investment in the department of Magdalena with a total of $ 24,388 million (a. U.S. $ 12 million) for 2006, representing an increase of 37.25% over 2003 figures.

The third line of the economy is the construction which grew by almost 50% in 2005 and doubled in 2006.

Santa Marta is visited especially by foreign countries Israel, Holland, Denmark and France are usually a quiet, safe and friendly paradise. Many country house belonging to families of large inland cities such as Bogota and Medellin, who purchased beachfront property and they enjoy the holiday periods.

arhuaco A family, people who have preserved their customs and traditions. Photo highat .

as a seaport, Santa Marta is the second in Colombia in the Caribbean. Maritime routes connecting the city with Santos (Brazil), Puerto Cabello (Venezuela), Port Everglades (Florida), Antwerp (Belgium), Setúbal (Portugal) and Genoa (Italy), among many others. Related Articles

• The management of public spaces in the historical center of Santa Marta . Monographs. Mayor
• Santa Marta District.
• Chamber of Commerce of Santa Marta .
• The seven wonders of Santa Marta . Santa Marta
• tourist.
• Sociedad Portuaria de Santa Marta .
• Trip to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta . Ethnic groups of Colombia.
  

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Cartagena de Indias, a symbol of freedom

Inglés

If there is a city that has stories to tell in the panorama of the Americas, this is Cartagena de Indias. He became one of the most important places in the South American coast in the Caribbean Sea, was lacerated as a major center of slave market during the colonial period, played a key role during the wars of independence from English rule, was one of the cities more important during the first day republics of Colombia and Cartagena de Indias, Heritage human historical, cultural and tourist district and one of the most beloved bastions Colombia. Cartagena de Indias in Colombia is the symbol of freedom and therefore of hope.

By Al Rodas
history of wars and warriors

And sirens come to rest on the beaches of Bocagrande. Photo

Hill Ale.
The city honors the Cartagena de Murcia in Spain, another center with an ancient history dating back to the year 227 BC, when General Hasdrubal the Handsome, a native of the Phoenician city of Carthage (North Africa) , founded what he called Qart Hadasht (new town) and which became the main Carthaginian base. Hadasht Qart was Hannibal who left to start the Second Punic War in 218. Under the Roman Empire, the city was renamed as Carthago Nova and currently is Cartagena. Thus the name has always carried a sense of war and has made the establishment which has a main point in the three continents: Africa Carthage, Cartagena de Murcia, Cartagena de Indias Europe and South America. Also the famous name of Carthage is honored in the hemisphere with the city of Cartago
in the department of Valle del Cauca and Cartago, Costa Rica
. In Colombia there is another Cartagena del Chaira the in the department of Caquetá and Cartagena is a in Chile. La India Catalina, Colombia's cazica and guardian of Cartagena de Indias. They say it came as an interpreter of Pedro de Heredia and then Alonso Montañez married and went to live in Seville, Spain. Oral tradition was in the myth of its unquestionable beauty and great intelligence that became the symbol of the city. Photo kosumel

.

Pedro de Heredia founded Cartagena de Indias on June 1, 1533 and its strategic position in the southern Caribbean Sea and the northern South American coast, soon would the first major port on the continent. In Cartagena de Indias came during the colonial cargoes of gold and spices that came from Lima, Quito and Bogota for shipment to Spain. Likewise, at Cartagena de Indias came the slave ships from Africa to the city soon became a main square of the slave market. Cartagena would also be the only venue in the Viceroyalty of New Granada (now Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama), the Palace of the Inquisition. Cartagena's commercial fame not only attract adventurers and English migrants, many other characters from different European nations, but among the most warlike would English pirates.

The walls of Cartagena: the work of military engineering seventeenth century's most important


Photo Leo Villamizar.
In 1586 the town received its first "Punic War": the English pirate Francis Drake sacked the city. If not for Francis Drake, King Philip II had not ordered the construction of the most fabulous military walls in the New World and today Cartagena de Indias
not be a Heritage of Humanity . The walls are the subject of study and admiration and were constructed so that hackers could not access the Bay of Cartagena. The walls are not only those who are outside and around the historic center but also include a specialized submarine walls system of tunnels and castles, all intended to counter any attack by sea. For example, between the Castle of San Felipe and the sea there is an underground tunnel through which the army could move.

A bastion. Photo
Leo Villamizar.
The construction of the walls was done in several stages. The first would be involved Bautista Antonelli Italian engineer from 1586. From 1608 Cristóbal de Roda directed the fortification of the party is between the city and the open sea. Between 1631 and 1633 Murga Francisco Barrio advanced fortification Gethsemane. In 1669 Juan Betín he works repair parts of the walls that were shot down by both the wave as Baron Pointis attacks. The Viceroy of Villalonga orders the governor Juan de Herrera to build submarines drawers make the jetty in front of the walls that were destroyed in 1721. It was not yet completed the Pharaonic work, when Cartagena de Indias received the siege of his "Second Punic War" was attacked by a great English army led by Edward Vernon coming prepared to take possession of the city with 186 ships and 23,600 Men who would face only 6 vessels and 3 000 men in a historical chapter which recalls the siege of Malta. The city was defended successfully Blas de Lezo and Carlos Suillars of Desnaux and became one of the largest South American military battles. Thanks also to Vernon, the Hispanic Americas up an intense project to defend fortificaziones especially British ambitions. Hispanic cities like all the time, would have its Cartagena
Intramuros, ie, the area is inside the walls, which was divided into five districts, perfectly distinguishable today: Santa Catalina which was the upper class with the cathedral and palaces, Santo Toribio was the mall, La Merced was a military area, San Sebastian and Gethsemane, artisans and workers sectors port. Extramural
was destined for the indigenous, ie those who did not share the same status then what is currently be called the "
English citizenship." The scheme would follow the medieval city of civility (
Roman civitas) in which the citizen of rights was the one who lived inside the walls and who was born on Iberian soil. Extramuros

Cathedral, Kik8 picture.
During the conquests and the establishment of the Colony, the indigenous
Zenú almost entirely disappeared from the area, a decimated by epidemics imported by the Europeans, others dead in unequal struggle against the powerful royal army, others could not stand the condition of exclusion and servitude and many migrated inward. His space was soon occupied by another people with a historical tragedy akin to that of Zenú Africans. Cartagena then became a kind of stock the slave market
the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries in which they were involved in almost all European powers at the time as Portugal, Spain, France, England, Holland and multitude of mercenaries. It is very likely that many indigenous Zenú not only join the for those who buy wives conquerors or cuncubinas of American Indian women became common practice, but also submit crosses between African and American Indian peoples.
Plaza de San Pedro. Photo
Hill Ale.
Cartagena and its surroundings, has become must for the study of slavery in America and the role of Africans in the continent's liberal cause. Not all Africans who were brought as slaves to Cartagena were resigned to their fate, although written in stone English names that contained the British advanced as Blas de Lezo and Creoles seminar the cries of freedom from Iberian Corona, the city and the region remains in the memory of the people the most legendary names of black heroes and indigenous human rebellion against the chains. The Maroons in particular have a unique chapter in national history. If the walls symbolize resistance to the threats from the sea, the Palenque de San Basilio symbolizes the power of freedom cries shouted by the men and women who were uprooted from their native Africa and brought as merchandise to foreign lands. Hand in hand with the stories of Africans in Cartagena can not ignore one of the men who would as a saint by the Catholic Church and as a model unquestionable in defense of human rights: San Pedro Claver, a defender of the blacks. Claver was a English Jesuit church who came from a silent to the plight of African families who arrived in Cartagena de Indias. From her convent, now one of the most visited museums in the city as Cloisters museum and church of San Pedro Claver , watching the ocean horizon waiting for the slave ship. When he arrived, the saint went to meet the newcomers with medicines and supplies. They were gathered in a square which today no longer exists in the city which is located in the prestigious Colegio San Pedro Claver of the Salesians.

Ghostbusters the Inquisition

A street in Old Cartagena. Photo
LC

Virginia.
But the history of Cartagena de Indias does not end with stories of pirates, Punic wars, monumental works and Maroons. She was also the focus of a chapter that this time has to do with the Church: the Holy Office of the Inquisition. Today the Palace of the Inquisition can be visited as a tourist attraction, but at the time was a center of horror. The Inquisition in Cartagena pertains specifically to what is known as the English Inquisition, which was founded by the Catholic Monarchs in 1478 with the aim of promoting and protecting Catholic orthodoxy within English territory. Coincides with the expulsion of Jews and Muslims of the Iberian Peninsula and then with special attention devoted to test the veracity or sincerity of Jewish converts, known then as "
pigs." This name is because the new converts were obstención of eating pork in abundance so that the Christians were convinced of their "sincerity
Catholic faith." Many Jewish converts were prosecuted by the Inquisition in both the Peninsula and the Americas to "debug ." Jews Persecuted and finishes this so devout , the inquisitors were devoted to the hunting of witches and sorcerers. Cartagena de Indias as a port and a center where people came from many peoples, was a point with a rich clientele to pass by the powerful machinery of the Inquisition. The inquisitors, ecclesiastic appointed by the English Crown to govern from Cartagena de Indias, had a great influence on the political and social life of the Viceroy. One of the Colombian works best illustrates what was the Inquisition in Cartagena is the television series The Devil's Hoof where the actor and director Kepa Amuchástegui colombo-English Inquisitor plays dark Mayorga. But the theme of the Inquisition cartegenera has been an inspiration as well as Colombian literature, such as Gabriel García Márquez that mentioned several times, for example in the work Of Love and Other Demons . Cartagena Heroic

A balcony of Cartagena as seen through the artistic lens

Leo Villamizar.
The story takes as its lessons and often does not follow the political course. The city bravely defended the integrity of the colonial English Empire, would be the first to rebel against those they subjugated their gallantry. On November 11, 1811 was the day on which the city decided to break the bonds that unite overseas to the English crown. Built for war, Cartagena de Indias be key player in the independence struggle in South America and the Caribbean. His defeat would mean the defeat of the ideals of liberty and due to its resistance to pirate raids Colombia today is not a British remnant. The struggles of Cartagena de Indias was the struggles of the defense of Colombia and the city played the role of guardian of South America. This was the reason the Liberator Simón Bolívar was given the posthumous title of Hero City after enduring courageously attack reconqueror Pablo Morillo. The Cartagena de Indias Republican


While Cartagena de Indias continued during the nineteenth century to be a major Colombian cities, by the early twentieth century hegemony would be to Barranquilla, a city that was born at the mouth Magdalena River in the Caribbean Sea and soon to be a necessary step to enter the country and trade. Cartagena de Indias had been built as a center of trade between the colonies and Spain and as a fortress against pirates and enemies of Madrid. With the end of the colonial era, the development of most powerful weapons for war and the disappearance of sea pirates, the city experienced a real decline until the first half of the twentieth century. In the decade of 30 and with the aim of opening the door to progress, the developers went so far as to propose the demolition of the walls of Cartagena to create opportunities to trade. Some sections of the walls came to be torn down and if not for the involvement of many personalities and the onset of World War II, the Walls of Cartagena would now only in books in the style of the Walls of Jericho in the Dead Sea. In 1959 the Congress of the Republic declared the historical center of Cartagena National Trust in 1984 Unesco declared it a World Heritage Site.
Today, Cartagena de Indias is one of the main centers of tourism in Colombia and is one of the first cities with a population that now exceeds 800 000 inhabitants. The population growth has undoubtedly been one of the keys to the city back to be first in the history of the country with great prospects for the new century. Mass transit reform, privatization of port and a stronger national and international levels, predict that Cartagena de Indias is one of the first Colombian cities in the XXI century. The Rafael Nuñez AIRPORT connects the city with the main National Airport. A flight from Cartagena to

Medellin or Bogota takes about an hour, while a bus trip to Medellin is 12 hours in the Core of the West in good condition and across the cities of Monteria, Sincelejo, Caucasia and Santa Rosa de Osos . Another road along the coast makes it possible to go from south to Cartagena Turbo (Antioquia) passing through the resorts of Tolu and Coveñas, or north to Riohacha through Barranquilla and Santa Marta
. The Bay is also closed by the Rosary
coral islands, a tour must for any visitor. The city has also a long list of attractions in the historic center and in other parts of the region. The grassroots are another world that can not be ignored, this time by the State. Just the historical value of Cartagena de Indias, its significance in the Colombian identity as a symbol of freedom, requires that all Cartagena have the same opportunities to make this city charming a power not only national but international study, tourism, investment and the economy in general. Cartagena is home to numerous international meetings like the International Film Festival Television , among many others. The Convention and Exhibition Centre City hosts meetings first order as the meeting of heads of state and the reign annual national beauty . Bibliography
* Cunin, Elizabeth and Christian Rinaudo.

The walls of Cartagena, including heritage, tourism and urban development (pdf). The role of society in public improvements. Journal Reports, Year II, No. 2, Uninorte, Barranquilla. ISSN 1794-8886 * BUSTILLOS PEREIRA, José Gabriel.
The walls of Cartagena, the historic route

. Reprinted with permission from Hernando Pereira Brieva. FERNÁNDEZ ARRIBAS *, Javier et al. Victory over Navy invincible. Letras del Mar. Fundación *
India Catalina Monument . El Universal. Cartagena, Caribbean dream. Recommended Links

*



From Cartagena Colombia. Complete guide to tourism, business and investment. * Mayor of Cartagena de Indias .

Is E Learners A Scam?

Ricardo Rendón by Colombian Fernando González